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| x Year | x Notes/Description | x Nobel Prize Winner | x Winners | x Subject Area | |||
| x name | x image | x article | |||||
| 2008 | "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus" | Françoise Barré-Sinoussi | HIV |
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Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening...
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| Luc Montagnier | |||||||
| 1975 | "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection" | James Rainwater | Atomic nucleus |
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The nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and...
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| Ben Roy Mottelson | |||||||
| Aage Niels Bohr | |||||||
| 2004 | "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation" | ||||||
| 1982 | "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes" | Aaron Klug | Electron crystallography |
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Electron crystallography is a method to determine the arrangement of atoms in solids using a transmission electron microscope (TEM).
It can complement X-ray crystallography for studies of very small crystals (
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| 1979 | "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current" | Steven Weinberg | Electroweak interaction |
In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low...
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| Abdus Salam | |||||||
| Sheldon Lee Glashow | |||||||
| 1939 | "for his work on sex hormones" | Adolf Butenandt | Sex steroid |
Sex steroids, also known as gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate androgen or estrogen receptors. Their effects are mediated by slow genomic mechanisms through nuclear receptors as well as by fast nongenomic mechanisms...
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| 1928 | "for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins" | Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus | Sterol |
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Sterols, also known as steroid alcohols, are a subgroup of the steroids and an important class of organic molecules. They occur naturally in plants, animals, and fungi, with the most familiar type of animal sterol being cholesterol. Cholesterol is...
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| 1905 | "in recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds" | Adolf von Baeyer | Baeyer-Drewson indigo synthesis |
The Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis (1882) is an organic reaction in which indigo is prepared from 2-nitrobenzaldehyde and acetone
The reaction is classified as a Aldol condensation. As a practical route to indigo, this method was displaced by...
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| Indigo dye |
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Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color (see indigo). Historically, indigo was a natural dye extracted from plants, and this process was important economically because blue dyes were once rare. Nearly all indigo dye produced...
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| 1980 | "for his efforts in the defense of human rights" | Adolfo Pérez Esquivel | Human rights |
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Human rights are commonly understood as "inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the...
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| 1999 | "for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy" | Ahmed Zewail | Femtochemistry |
Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).
The steps in the formation of new products by chemical reactions take place in the femtosecond...
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| 2007 | "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change" | ||||||
| 2000 | "for the discovery and development of conductive polymers" | Alan MacDiarmid | Conductive polymer |
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Conductive polymers or, more precisely, intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. Such compounds may have metallic conductivity or can be semiconductors. The biggest advantage of conductive polymers is...
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| Hideki Shirakawa | |||||||
| Alan J. Heeger | |||||||
| 1963 | "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane" | Andrew Huxley | Action potential |
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A Spike train is a sequence of action potentials. While action potentials are believed to be elemental bits of information transmittable by a neuron, temporal structure of a spike train serves as a code for the information transmitted. It is...
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| Alan Lloyd Hodgkin | Chemical synapse |
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Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial...
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| John Carew Eccles | |||||||
| 1907 | "for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid" | Albert Abraham Michelson | Michelson-Morley experiment |
The Michelson–Morley experiment was performed in 1887 by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. It was aimed at detecting the relative motion of matter relative to the stationary...
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| 1957 | "for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times" | Albert Camus | Capital punishment |
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Capital punishment, the death penalty, death sentence, or execution is a legal process whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital...
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| 1974 | "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell" | George Emil Palade | Cell fractionation |
Cell fractionation is the separation of homogeneous sets, usually organelles, from a population of cells.
There are three principal steps involved:
Tissue is typically homogenized in an isotonic buffer solution using a variety of mechanisms. A ...
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| Albert Claude | Organelle |
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In cell biology, an organelle ( /ɔrɡəˈnɛl/) is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer.
The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are to...
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| Christian de Duve | |||||||
| 1921 | "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" | Albert Einstein | Photoelectric effect |
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In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, such as visible or ultraviolet...
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| 2007 | "for the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance" | Peter Grünberg | Giant magnetoresistive effect |
Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect observed in thin-film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers. The 2007 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Albert Fert and Peter...
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| Albert Fert | |||||||
| 1960 | "for his role in the non-violent struggle against apartheid." | Albert Lutuli | South Africa |
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces, with 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans. To the north of the...
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| Nonviolence |
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Nonviolence has two (closely related) meanings: (1) It can refer, first, to a general philosophy of abstention from violence because of moral or religious principle (e.g. "She believes in nonviolence."), or (2) it can refer to the behaviour of...
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| Anti-Apartheid | |||||||
| 1937 | "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid" | Albert Szent-Györgyi | Vitamin C |
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Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. In living organisms ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least...
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| Fumaric acid |
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Fumaric acid or trans-butenedioic acid is the chemical compound with the formula HO2CCH=CHCO2H. This white crystalline compound is one of two isomeric unsaturated dicarboxylic acids, the other being maleic acid. In fumaric acid the carboxylic acid...
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| 1910 | "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances" | Albrecht Kossel | Cell biology |
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Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "contain") is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle,...
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| Protein |
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Proteins ( /ˈproʊˌtiːnz/ or /ˈproʊti.ɨnz/) are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function.
A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino...
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| Nucleic Acids |
A family of macromolecules, composed of various moiety: purines, pyrimidines, phosphoric acid, and a pentose, either d-ribose or d-deoxyribose. Nucleic acids in the form either DNA or RNA was found in the chromosomes, nucleoli, mitochondria, and...
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| 1970 | "for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature" | Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | Gulag |
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The Gulag (Russian: ГУЛаг, tr. GULag; IPA: [ɡʊˈlak] ( listen)) was the government agency that administered the main Soviet forced labor camp systems. While the camps housed a wide range of convicts, from petty criminals to political prisoners, large...
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| 1964 | "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle" | Nikolay Basov | Quantum electronics |
Quantum electronics is the area of physics dealing with the effects of quantum mechanics on the behavior of electrons in matter, and their interactions with photons.
It is today rarely considered a subfield in its own right, as it has been absorbed...
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| Alexander Prokhorov | Maser |
A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission. Historically, “maser” derives from the original, upper-case acronym MASER, which stands for "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated...
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| Charles Hard Townes | |||||||
| 1945 | "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases" | Ernst Boris Chain | Penicillin |
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Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium fungi. They include penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V. Penicillin antibiotics are historically significant...
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| Howard Walter Florey | |||||||
| Alexander Fleming | |||||||
| 1957 | "for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes" | Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd | Nucleotide |
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Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined, make up the individual structural units of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides participate in cellular signaling (cGMP and cAMP), and are incorporated into important cofactors of...
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| 2003 | "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids" | Vitaly Ginzburg | Superfluid |
Superfluid is a state of matter in which the matter behaves like a fluid with zero viscosity and zero entropy. The substance, which looks like a normal liquid, will flow without friction past any surface, which allows it to continue to circulate...
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| Anthony James Leggett | Superconductivity |
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Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,...
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| Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov | |||||||
| 1912 | "in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs" | Alexis Carrel | Surgical suture |
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Surgical suture is a medical device used to hold body tissues together after an injury or surgery. It generally consists of a needle with an attached length of thread. A number of different shapes, sizes, and thread materials have been developed...
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| Organ transplant |
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Organ transplantation is the moving of an organ from one body to another or from a donor site on the patient's own body, for the purpose of replacing the recipient's damaged or absent organ. The emerging field of regenerative medicine is allowing...
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| 1982 | "as the driving force behind the Treaty of Tlatelolco, setting up a nuclear-free zone in Latin America and the Caribbean." | Alfonso García Robles | Treaty of Tlatelolco |
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The Treaty of Tlatelolco is the conventional name given to the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean. It is embodied in the OPANAL (Spanish: el Organismo para la Proscripción de las Armas Nucleares en la...
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| 1994 | "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells" | Martin Rodbell | G-protein signal transduction | ||||
| Alfred G. Gilman | |||||||
| 1969 | "for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses" | Max Delbrück | Viral replication |
Viral replication is the term used by virologists to describe the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first get into the cell before viral replication can occur. From the perspective of...
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| Salvador Luria | |||||||
| Alfred Hershey | |||||||
| 1966 | "for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms" | Alfred Kastler | Optical pumping |
Optical pumping is a process in which light is used to raise (or "pump") electrons from a lower energy level in an atom or molecule to a higher one. It is commonly used in laser construction, to pump the active laser medium so as to achieve...
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| 1913 | "in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry" | Alfred Werner | Octahedral molecular geometry |
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In chemistry, octahedral molecular geometry describes the shape of compounds where in six atoms or groups of atoms or ligands are symmetrically arranged around a central atom, defining the vertices of an octahedron. The octahedron has eight faces,...
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| 1979 | "for the development of computer assisted tomography" | Godfrey Hounsfield | Computed tomography |
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X-ray computed tomography, also Computed tomography (CT scan) or Computed axial tomography (CAT scan), can be used for medical imaging and industrial imaging methods employing tomography created by computer processing. Digital geometry processing is...
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| Allan McLeod Cormack | |||||||
| 1911 | "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye" | Allvar Gullstrand | Dioptrics |
Dioptrics is the study of the refraction of light, especially by lenses. Telescopes that create their image with an objective that is a convex lens (refractors) are said to be "dioptric" telescopes.
An early study of dioptrics was conducted by...
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| 1998 | "for his contributions to welfare economics" | Amartya Sen | Welfare economics |
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Welfare economics is a branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to evaluate economic well-being, especially relative to competitive general equilibrium within an economy as to economic efficiency and the resulting income distribution...
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| 1947 | Quaker Peace and Social Witness | Humanitarian aid |
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Humanitarian aid is material or logistical assistance provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to humanitarian crises including natural disaster and man-made disaster. The primary objective of humanitarian aid is to save lives,...
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| American Friends Service Committee | |||||||
| 1977 | "for its campaign against torture" | Amnesty International | Human rights |
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Human rights are commonly understood as "inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the...
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| 1921 | "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament" | Anatole France | Literature |
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Literature (from Latin litterae (plural); letter) is the art of written work, and is not confined to published sources (although, under some circumstances, unpublished sources can also be exempt). The word literature literally means "things made...
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| 1956 | "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system" | Dickinson W. Richards | Cardiac catheterization |
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Cardiac catheterization (heart cath) is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done for both investigational and interventional purposes. Subsets of this technique are mainly coronary catheterization, involving...
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| Werner Forssmann | |||||||
| André Frédéric Cournand | |||||||
| 1947 | "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight" | André Gide | Literature |
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Literature (from Latin litterae (plural); letter) is the art of written work, and is not confined to published sources (although, under some circumstances, unpublished sources can also be exempt). The word literature literally means "things made...
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| 1965 | "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis" | Jacques Monod | Lac operon |
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The lac operon is an operon required for the transport and metabolism of lactose in Escherichia coli and some other enteric bacteria. It consists of three adjacent structural genes, lacZ, lacY and lacA. The lac operon is regulated by several factors...
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| François Jacob | Provirus |
A provirus is a virus genome that is integrated into the DNA of a host cell.
This state can be a stage of virus replication, or a state that persists over longer periods of time as either inactive viral infections or an endogenous retrovirus. In...
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| André Michel Lwoff | |||||||
| 1975 | "for his ideas on social development of human rights as a new basis of all politics" | Andrei Sakharov | Civil liberties |
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Civil liberties are civil rights and freedoms that provide an individual specific rights such as the freedom from slavery and forced labor, freedom from torture and death, the right to liberty and security, right to a fair trial, the right to defend...
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| 2006 | "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA" | Craig Mello | RNA interference |
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RNA interference (RNAi) is a process within living cells that moderates the activity of their genes. Historically, it was known by other names, including co-suppression, post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and quelling. Only after these...
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| Andrew Fire | |||||||
| 1977 | "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain" | Roger Guillemin | Neurohormone |
A neurohormone is any hormone produced and released by neurons.
Examples include:
In contrast to the classical hormones oxytocin and ADH, which are released to the blood and distributed throughout the body, neurotransmitters can be considered...
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| Andrzej W. Schally | |||||||
| 1903 | " In recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity." | Antoine Henri Becquerel | Radioactive decay |
Radioactive decay is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing particles (ionizing radiation). There are many different types of radioactive decay (see table below). A decay, or loss of energy,...
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| 1974 | "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars" | Antony Hewish | Radio astronomy |
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Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when Karl Jansky observed radiation coming from the Milky Way....
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| Martin Ryle | |||||||
| 1978 | "for creating the Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty" | Menachem Begin | Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty |
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The 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty (Arabic: معاهدة السلام المصرية الإسرائيلية, Mu`āhadat as-Salām al-Misrīyah al-'Isrā'īlīyah; Hebrew: הסכם השלום בין ישראל למצרים, Heskem HaShalom Bein Yisrael LeMitzrayim) was signed in Washington, D.C. on the...
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| Anwar Sadat | |||||||
| 1952 | "for their invention of partition chromatography" | Richard Laurence Millington Synge | Chromatography |
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Chromatography (from Greek χρῶμα chroma "color" and γράφειν graphein "to write") is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. The mixture is dissolved in a fluid called the "mobile phase", which carries...
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| Archer John Porter Martin | |||||||
| 1922 | "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle" | Archibald Hill | Muscle |
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Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse") is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of...
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| 1926 | "for the Locarno Treaties" | Gustav Stresemann | Locarno Treaties |
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The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5 October – 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 3 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of central and...
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| Aristide Briand | |||||||
| 1948 | "for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins" | Arne Tiselius | Electrophoresis |
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Electrophoresis is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field. This electrokinetic phenomenon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Reuss (Moscow State University), who...
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| 1978 | "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation" | Robert Woodrow Wilson | Cosmic microwave background radiation |
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In cosmology, cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation (also CMBR, CBR, MBR, and relic radiation) is thermal radiation filling the observable universe almost uniformly.
With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies ...
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| Arno Allan Penzias | |||||||
| 1927 | "for his discovery of the effect named after him" | Arthur Compton | Compton scattering |
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In physics, Compton scattering is a type of scattering that X-rays and gamma rays (both photons with different energy ranges) undergo in matter. The inelastic scattering of photons in matter results in a decrease in energy (increase in wavelength)...
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| 1929 | "for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes" | Hans von Euler-Chelpin | Fermentation |
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Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical...
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| Arthur Harden | |||||||
| 1934 | Arthur Henderson | World Disarmament Conference |
The Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments of 1932-34 (sometimes World Disarmament Conference or Geneva Disarmament Conference) was an effort by member states of the League of Nations, together with the U.S. and the Soviet Union,...
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| 1959 | "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid" | Severo Ochoa | nucleic acid synthesis | ||||
| Arthur Kornberg | DNA |
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (/diˌɒksiˌraɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/; DNA) is a nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). The DNA segments...
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| 1981 | "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy" | Nicolaas Bloembergen | Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy |
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Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a type of atomic emission spectroscopy which uses a highly energetic laser pulse as the excitation source. The laser is focused to form a plasma, which atomizes and excites samples. In principle, LIBS...
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| Arthur Leonard Schawlow | |||||||
| 1945 | "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method" | Artturi Ilmari Virtanen | Agricultural chemistry |
Agricultural chemistry is the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. These studies emphasize...
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| AIV fodder |
AIV Fodder is a kind of silage. The AIV liquid is added to the green fodder to improve the storage. This is especially important during long winters. The process includes adding a dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid to newly stored grain. Increased...
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| 2000 | "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system" | Paul Greengard | nervous system signal transduction | ||||
| Eric R. Kandel | |||||||
| Arvid Carlsson | |||||||
| 1920 | "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism" | August Krogh | Capillary |
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Capillaries ( /ˈkæpɨlɛri/) are the smallest of a body's blood vessels and are parts of the microcirculation. Their endothelial linings are only one cell thick. These microvessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, connect arterioles and venules, and...
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