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| x Nihilism |
Nihilism ( /ˈnaɪ.ɨlɪzəm/ or /ˈniː.ɨlɪzəm/; from the Latin nihil, nothing) is the philosophical doctrine suggesting the negation of one or more putatively meaningful aspects of life. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential...
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| x Pragmatism |
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Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice. Important positions...
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| x Friedrich Nietzsche |
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Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche ( /ˈniːtʃə/; German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtsʃə]; October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher, poet, composer and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion,...
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| x Søren Kierkegaard |
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Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (English pronunciation: /ˈsɔrən ˈkɪərkəɡɑrd/ or /ˈkɪərkəɡɔr/; Danish: [ˈsɶːɐn ˈkiɐ̯ɡəɡɒːˀ] ( listen)) (5 May 1813 –11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian and religious author. He was a critic of idealist...
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| x Analytic philosophy |
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Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New...
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| x Bertrand Russell |
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Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist,...
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| x Daniel Dennett |
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Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28, 1942) is an American philosopher, writer and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to...
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| x Chinese room |
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The Chinese room is a thought experiment presented by John Searle. Suppose that there is a program that gives a computer the ability to carry on an intelligent conversation in written Chinese. If we give the program to an English speaker and they...
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| x Schrödinger's cat |
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Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment, usually described as a paradox, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935. It illustrates what he saw as the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics applied to everyday...
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| x Pascal's Wager |
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Pascal's Wager (also known as Pascal's Gambit) is a suggestion posed by the French philosopher, mathematician, and physicist Blaise Pascal that since the existence of God can not be proved (or disproved) through reason, but since in his view there...
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| x Tao |
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Dao or Tao (道, Pinyin: Dào (help·info) ) is a Chinese word meaning 'way', 'path', 'route', or sometimes more loosely, 'doctrine' or 'principle'. Within the context of traditional Chinese philosophy and religion, Tao is a metaphysical concept...
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| x Mary's room |
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Mary's room (also known as Mary the super-scientist) is a philosophical thought experiment proposed by Frank Jackson in his article "Epiphenomenal Qualia" (1982) and extended in "What Mary Didn't Know" (1986). The argument is intended to motivate...
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| x Erwin Schrödinger |
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Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger ( /ˈʃroʊdɪŋər/; German: [ˈɛʁviːn ˈʃʁøːdɪŋɐ]; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961) was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist who was one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, and is famed for a number of...
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| x Walter Benjamin |
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Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (German pronunciation: [ˈvaltɐ ˈbɛnjamiːn], 15 July 1892 – 26 September 1940) was a German-Jewish intellectual, who functioned variously as a literary critic, philosopher, sociologist, translator, radio broadcaster...
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| x Socrates |
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Socrates ( /ˈsɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης, Ancient Greek pronunciation: [sɔːkrátɛːs], Sōkrátēs; c. 469 BC – 399 BC) was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known...
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| x Western Marxism |
Western Marxism is a term used to describe a wide variety of Marxist theoreticians based in Western and Central Europe, in contrast with philosophy in the Soviet Union. While György Lukács's History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korsch's Marxism...
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| x Frankfurt School |
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The Frankfurt School (German: Frankfurter Schule) refers to a school of neo-Marxist interdisciplinary social theory, particularly associated with the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main. The school initially...
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| x Plato |
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Plato ( /ˈpleɪtoʊ/; Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad"; 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of...
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| x Hermeneutics |
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In religious studies and social philosophy, hermeneutics (English pronunciation: /hɜrməˈn(j)uːtɨks/) is the study of the theory and practice of interpretation.
Traditional hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of written texts, especially...
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| x Metaphysics |
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Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:...
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| x Philosophy of language |
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Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of language. As a topic, the philosophy of language for analytic philosophers is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language...
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| x Philosophy of mind |
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Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body problem, i.e. the...
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| x Philosophy of science |
The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. It is also concerned with the use and merit of science and sometimes overlaps metaphysics and epistemology by exploring whether scientific...
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| x Stoicism |
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Stoicism (Greek Στωικισμός) is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and...
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| x Structuralism |
Structuralism originated in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague, Moscow and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. At a time when structural linguistics was facing serious challenges from the likes of Noam...
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| x Richard Price |
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Richard Price (23 February 1723 – 19 April 1791) was a British moral philosopher and preacher in the tradition of English Dissenters, and a political pamphleteer, active in radical, republican, and liberal causes such as the American Revolution. He...
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| x Charles Peirce |
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Charles Sanders Peirce ( /ˈpɜrs/ like "purse"; September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and...
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| x Personal identity |
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Personal identity is the unique numerical identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be the same person, persisting through...
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| x John Locke |
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John Locke FRS ( /ˈlɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the...
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| x David Hume |
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David Hume (7 May [O.S. 26 April] 1711 – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of...
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| x Derek Parfit |
Derek Parfit (born December 11, 1942; China) is a British philosopher who specializes in problems of personal identity, rationality and ethics, and the relations between them. His 1984 book Reasons and Persons (described by Alan Ryan in The Sunday...
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| x Intentional stance |
The intentional stance is a term coined by philosopher Daniel Dennett for the level of abstraction in which we view the behavior of a thing in terms of mental properties. It is part of a theory of mental content proposed by Dennett, which provides...
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| x Age of Enlightenment |
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The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th-century Europe, that sought to mobilize the power of reason, in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted...
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| x Appeal to probability |
An appeal to probability is a justification based on probability, sometimes regarded as a logical fallacy, when an unwarranted assumption that something will happen, because it can happen, or when the odds of an occurrence are unrealistically played...
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| x Argument from fallacy |
Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false. It is also called argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam), fallacy fallacy, or fallacist's fallacy....
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| x Bare assertion fallacy |
The bare assertion fallacy is a fallacy in formal logic where a premise in an argument is assumed to be true merely because it says that it is true. The bare assertion fallacy claims, "That's just how it is."
One form of the fallacy may be...
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| x Base rate fallacy |
The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is an error that occurs when the conditional probability of some hypothesis H given some evidence E is assessed without taking into account the "base rate" or "prior probability...
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| x Conjunction fallacy |
The conjunction fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.
The most often-cited example of this fallacy originated with Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman:
Linda is...
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| x Denying the correlative |
The logical fallacy of denying the correlative is an attempt made at introducing alternatives where there are none. In a way, it is the opposite of the false dilemma, which is denying other alternatives.
For example:
In determining whether this...
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| x Suppressed correlative |
The fallacy of suppressed correlative is a type of argument that tries to redefine a correlative (one of two mutually exclusive options) so that one alternative encompasses the other, i.e. making one alternative impossible. This has also been known...
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| x Fallacy of necessity |
A fallacy of necessity (fellacia necessitas) is a fallacy in the logic of a syllogism whereby a degree of unwarranted necessity is placed in the conclusion.
Example:
The condition a) appears to be a tautology and therefore true. The condition b) is...
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| x False dilemma |
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A false dilemma (also called false dichotomy, the either-or fallacy, fallacy of false choice, black-and-white thinking, or the fallacy of exhaustive hypotheses) is a type of logical fallacy that involves a situation in which only two alternatives...
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| x If-by-whiskey |
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In political discourse, if-by-whiskey is a relativist fallacy where the response to a question is contingent on the questioner's opinions and use of words with strong positive or negative connotations (e.g., terrorist as negative and freedom fighter...
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| x Ignoratio elenchi |
Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion or irrelevant thesis) is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. "Ignoratio elenchi" can be roughly translated by...
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| x Homunculus argument |
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The homunculus argument is a fallacy arising most commonly in the theory of vision. One may explain (human) vision by noting that light from the outside world forms an image on the retinas in the eyes and something (or someone) in the brain looks at...
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| x Masked man fallacy |
The masked man fallacy is a fallacy of formal logic in which substitution of identical designators in a true statement can lead to a false one.
One form of the fallacy may be summarized as follows:
The problem arises because Premise 1 and Premise 2...
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| x Naturalistic fallacy |
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The naturalistic fallacy is often claimed to be a formal fallacy. It was described and named by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica. Moore stated that a naturalistic fallacy is committed whenever a philosopher attempts...
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| x Nirvana fallacy |
The nirvana fallacy is the logical error of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives. It can also refer to the tendency to assume that there is a perfect solution to a particular problem. A closely related concept is the...
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| x Negative proof |
Negative proof, the fallacy of appealing to lack of proof of the negative, is a logical fallacy of the following form:
It is asserted that a proposition is true, only because it has not been proven false. The negative proof fallacy often occurs in...
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| x Package-deal fallacy |
The logical fallacy of the package deal consists of assuming that things often grouped together by tradition or culture must always be grouped that way.
It is particularly common in political arguments: "My opponent is a conservative who voted...
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| x Affirming a disjunct |
The logical fallacy of affirming a disjunct also known as the fallacy of the alternative disjunct or a false exclusionary disjunct occurs when a deductive argument takes the following logical form:
Or in logical operators:
Where denotes a logical...
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| x Affirming the consequent |
Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form:
An argument of this form is invalid, i.e., the conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since P was never...
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| x Denying the antecedent |
Denying the antecedent, sometimes also called inverse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form:
Arguments of this form are invalid. Informally, this means that arguments of this form do not give good reason to establish their...
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| x Existential fallacy |
The existential fallacy, or existential instantiation, is a logical fallacy in Boolean logic while it is not in Aristotelian logic. In an existential fallacy, we presuppose that a class has members even when we are not explicitly told so; that is,...
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| x Illicit Conversion |
An illicit conversion is the invalid inversion of a A- or O-type proposition. It can also be defined as an argument which entails the arbitrary assignment of a specific trait of a set to one of its subsets.
The basic forms of the illicit conversion...
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| x Proof by example |
Proof by example (also known as inappropriate generalization) is a logical fallacy whereby one or more examples are claimed as "proof" for a more general statement.
This fallacy has the following structure, and argument form:
Structure:
Argument...
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| x Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise |
Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise is a logical fallacy that is committed when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but one or two negative premises.
For example:
The only thing that can be properly inferred from these...
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| x Fallacy of exclusive premises |
The fallacy of exclusive premises is a syllogistic fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative.
Example of an EOO-4 invalid proposition:
This article was originally based on material from...
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| x Fallacy of four terms |
The fallacy of four terms (Latin: quaternio terminorum) is the logical fallacy that occurs when a syllogism has four (or more) terms rather than the requisite three. This form of argument is thus invalid.
Categorical syllogisms always have three...
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| x Illicit major |
Illicit major is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is undistributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion.
This fallacy has the following argument form:
Example:
In this...
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