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| x Nihilism |
Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing) is the philosophical doctrine suggesting the negation of one or more aspects of life. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism which argues that life is without objective...
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| x Pragmatism |
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Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that...
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| x Friedrich Nietzsche |
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Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhəlm ˈniːtʃə]) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary...
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| x Søren Kierkegaard |
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Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (English pronunciation: /ˈsɔrənˈkɪərkəɡɑrd/ or /ˈkɪərkəɡɒr/; Danish: [ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ] ( listen)) (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian, and psychologist. Kierkegaard strongly criticised...
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| x Analytic philosophy |
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Analytic philosophy (sometimes, analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New...
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| x Bertrand Russell |
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Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, socialist, pacifist and social critic. Although he spent the majority of his life in England,...
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| x Daniel Dennett |
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Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28, 1942 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American philosopher whose research centers on philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary...
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| x Chinese room |
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The Chinese room argument comprises a thought experiment and associated arguments by John Searle (1980), which attempts to show that a symbol-processing machine like a computer can never be properly described as having a "mind" or "understanding",...
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| x Schrödinger's cat |
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Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment, often described as a paradox, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935. It illustrates what he saw as the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics applied to everyday...
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| x Pascal's Wager |
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Pascal's Wager (or Pascal's Gambit) is a suggestion posed by the French philosopher Blaise Pascal that even though the existence of God cannot be determined through reason, a person should wager as though God exists, because living life accordingly...
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| x Tao |
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Tao (道, pinyin: dào (help·info) ) is a concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy. While the character itself translates as 'way', 'path', or 'route', or sometimes more loosely as 'doctrine' or ...
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| x Mary's room |
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Mary's room (also known as Mary the super-scientist) is a philosophical thought experiment proposed by Frank Jackson in his article "Epiphenomenal Qualia" (1982) and extended in "What Mary Didn't Know" (1986). The argument it is intended to motivate...
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| x Erwin Schrödinger |
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Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger (German pronunciation: [ˈɛrviːn ˈʃrøːdɪŋɐ]; 12 August 1887, Erdberg – 4 January 1961, Vienna) was an Austrian theoretical physicist who achieved fame for his contributions to quantum mechanics, especially the...
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| x Walter Benjamin |
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Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (15 July 1892 – 27 September 1940) was a German-Jewish Marxist philosopher-sociologist, literary critic, translator and essayist. He was at times associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. His Marxism...
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| x Socrates |
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Socrates (pronounced /ˈsɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης, Sōkrátēs; c. 469 BC–399 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known only through the classical accounts of his...
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| x Western Marxism |
Western Marxism is a term used to describe a wide variety of Marxist theoreticians based in Western and Central Europe (and more recently North America), in contrast with philosophy in the Soviet Union. While Georg Lukács's History and Class...
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| x Frankfurt School |
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The Frankfurt School refers to a school of neo-Marxist interdisciplinary social theory, particularly associated with the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main. The school gathered together dissident Marxists who, while...
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| x Plato |
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Plato (pronounced /ˈpleɪtoʊ/, Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad"; 428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher...
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| x Hermeneutics |
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Hermeneutics (English pronunciation: /hɜrməˈnjuːtɨks/) is the study of interpretation theory, and can be either the art of interpretation, or the theory and practice of interpretation. Traditional hermeneutics — which includes Biblical hermeneutics ...
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| x Metaphysics |
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Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of...
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| x Philosophy of language |
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Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of language. As a topic, the philosophy of language for analytic philosophers is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language...
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| x Philosophy of mind |
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Philosophy of mind is a branch of modern analytic philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body...
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| x Philosophy of science |
The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, and implications of science. The field is defined by an interest in one of a set of "traditional" problems or an interest in central or foundational concerns in science. In...
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| x Stoicism |
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Stoicism was a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. The Stoics considered destructive emotions to be the result of errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual...
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| x Structuralism |
Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts. It began in linguistics with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). But many...
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| x Richard Price |
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Richard Price (23 February 1723 – 19 April 1791) was a Welsh moral philosopher and preacher in the tradition of English Dissenters, and a political pamphleteer, active in radical, republican, and liberal causes such as the American Revolution. He...
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| x Charles Peirce |
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Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced /ˈpɜrs/ purse) (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a...
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| x Personal identity |
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In philosophy, personal identity refers to the numerical identity of persons through time. That is to say, the conditions under which a person is said to be identical to himself through time.
The question regarding personal identity has addressed...
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| x John Locke |
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John Locke (pronounced /lɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English physician and philosopher regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered the first of the British empiricists, he is equally important to...
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| x David Hume |
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David Hume (7 May 1711 [26 April O.S.] – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, economist, historian and a key figure in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Hume is often grouped with John Locke, George Berkeley,...
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| x Derek Parfit |
Derek Parfit (born December 11, 1942) is a British philosopher who specializes in problems of personal identity, rationality and ethics, and the relations between them. His 1984 book, Reasons and Persons (described by Alan Ryan in The Sunday Times...
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| x Intentional stance |
The intentional stance is a theory of mental content proposed by Daniel Dennett. The theory provides the underpinnings of his later works on free will, consciousness, folk psychology, and evolution. The intentional stance is a level of abstraction...
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| x Age of Enlightenment |
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The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment) is a term used to describe a time in Western philosophy and cultural life, centered upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority....
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| x Appeal to probability |
The appeal to probability is a logical fallacy. It assumes that because something could happen, it is inevitable that it will happen. This is flawed logic, regardless of the likelihood of the event in question. The fallacy is often used to exploit...
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| x Argument from fallacy |
"Argument from fallacy" describes what is also called Argument to Logic (Argumentum ad Logicam) or fallacy fallacy, is a logical fallacy which assumes that if an argument is fallacious its conclusion must be false.
It has the general argument form:...
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| x Bare assertion fallacy |
The bare assertion fallacy is a fallacy in formal logic where a premise in an argument is assumed to be true merely because it says that it is true.
One form of the fallacy may be summarized as follows:
Put into practice, this fallacy would read:
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| x Base rate fallacy |
The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect, is an error that occurs when the conditional probability of some hypothesis H given some evidence E is assessed without taking sufficient account of the "base rate" or "prior probability" of E....
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| x Conjunction fallacy |
The conjunction fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.
The most oft-cited example of this fallacy originated with Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman:
85% of...
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| x Denying the correlative |
The logical fallacy of denying the correlative is an attempt made at introducing alternatives where there are none. In a way, it is the opposite of the false dilemma, which is denying other alternatives.
For example:
In determining whether this...
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| x Suppressed correlative |
The logical fallacy of suppressed correlative is a type of argument which tries to redefine a correlative (two mutually exclusive options) so that one alternative encompasses the other, i.e. making one alternative impossible.
Examples:
This type of...
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| x Fallacy of necessity |
A fallacy of necessity is a fallacy in the logic of a syllogism whereby a degree of unwarranted necessity is placed in the conclusion.
Example:
The condition a) is a tautology and therefore valid on its face. The condition b) is a statement of fact...
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| x False dilemma |
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The logical fallacy of false dilemma (also called false dichotomy, the either-or fallacy) involves a situation in which only two alternatives are considered, when in fact there are other options. Closely related are failing to consider a range of...
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| x If-by-whiskey |
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In political discourse, if-by-whiskey is a relativist fallacy where the response to a question is contingent on the questioner's opinions and use of words with strong positive or negative connotations (e.g., terrorist as negative and freedom fighter...
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| x Ignoratio elenchi |
Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion or irrelevant thesis) is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. "Ignoratio elenchi" can be roughly translated by...
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| x Homunculus argument |
The homunculus argument is a fallacy arising most commonly in the theory of vision. One may explain (human) vision by noting that light from the outside world forms an image on the retinas in the eyes and something (or someone) in the brain looks at...
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| x Masked man fallacy |
The masked man fallacy is a fallacy of formal logic in which substitution of identical designators in a true statement can lead to a false one. The name comes from the example "I do not know who the masked man is", which can be true even though the...
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| x Naturalistic fallacy |
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The naturalistic fallacy is often claimed to be a formal fallacy. It was described and named by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica. Moore stated that a naturalistic fallacy was committed whenever a philosopher attempts...
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| x Nirvana fallacy |
The Nirvana fallacy is the logical error of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives. It can also refer to the tendency to assume that there is a perfect solution to a particular problem.
Example: "If we go on the Highway 95...
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| x Negative proof |
Negative proof, the fallacy of appealing to lack of proof of the negative, is a logical fallacy of the following form:
It is asserted that a proposition is true, only because it has not been proven false. The negative proof fallacy often occurs in...
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| x Package-deal fallacy |
The logical fallacy of the package deal consists of assuming that things often grouped together by tradition or culture must always be grouped that way.
It is particularly common in political arguments: "My opponent is a conservative who voted...
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| x Affirming a disjunct |
The logical fallacy of affirming a disjunct also known as the fallacy of the alternative disjunct or a false exclusionary disjunct occurs when a deductive argument takes the following logical form:
Or in logical operators:
Where denotes a logical...
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| x Affirming the consequent |
Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form:
An argument of this form is invalid, i.e., the conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since P was never...
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| x Denying the antecedent |
Denying the antecedent, sometimes also called inverse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form:
Arguments of this form are invalid. Informally, this means that arguments of this form do not give good reason to establish their...
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| x Existential fallacy |
The existential fallacy, or existential instantiation, is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because it has two universal premises and a particular conclusion. In other words, for the conclusion to be true, at...
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| x Illicit Conversion |
An illicit conversion is the invalid inversion of a A- or O-type proposition. It can also be defined as an argument which entails the arbitrary assignment of a specific trait of a set to one of its subsets.
The basic forms of the illicit conversion...
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| x Proof by example |
Proof by example (also known as inappropriate generalisation) is a logical fallacy whereby one or more examples are claimed as "proof" for a more general statement.
This fallacy has the following argument form:
The following example demonstrates why...
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| x Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise |
Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise is a logical fallacy that is committed when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but one or two negative premises.
For example:
The only thing that can be properly inferred from these...
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| x Fallacy of exclusive premises |
The fallacy of exclusive premises is a formal fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative.
Example:
It is not a syllogistic fallacy because at least one premise of a given syllogism has to...
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| x Fallacy of four terms |
The fallacy of four terms (Latin: quaternio terminorum) is the logical fallacy that occurs when a categorical syllogism has four terms.
Categorical syllogisms always have three terms:
Here, the three terms are: "goldfish," "fish," and "fins."
Using...
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| x Illicit major |
Illicit major is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is undistributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion.
This fallacy has the following argument form:
Example:
In this...
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